The Atharva Veda, Rig Veda, and Yajur Veda contain prayers that emphasise the importance of maintaining a clean atmosphere for physical and mental well-being. Similarly, the Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita links air quality to health, noting that impure air can lead to diseases. Although these ancient texts did not define air pollution in scientific terms, they highlight early concerns about environmental purity. The concept of pollution as we know it emerged during the Industrial Revolution (18th-19th centuries), when people began noticing the environmental impacts of industrialisation. Later, environmentalists like John Evelyn, who addressed London’s air issues in Fumifugium (1661), and Rachel Carson, who highlighted the dangers of chemical pollution in Silent Spring (1962), were pivotal in raising awareness about pollution’s impact on health and the environment.
FOCUS DELHI
Delhi has not suddenly become the most polluted city in the world. The air quality and pollution issues began drawing serious attention in the late 20th century, driven by rapid urbanisation, population growth, and industrialisation. Attention to Delhi’s air quality intensified in 1995, when the World Health Organization (WHO) listed it among the most polluted cities globally due to ambient air quality, particularly high particulate matter (PM 10) levels. In response, in 1996-98, the Supreme Court of India implemented stricter pollution controls including mandating CNG for public transport. Despite these efforts, Delhi has consistently ranked among the world’s most polluted cities, with the WHO naming it the city with the highest PM 2.5 levels in 2014. Today, Delhi’s air quality crisis continues to worsen.
Delhi’s air pollution crisis is a multi-faceted issue driven by several factors. Seasonal stubble burning in nearby states contributes 25-30% of pollution during peak months (October to December), while vehicular emissions account for about 30% of annual pollution including 40% of PM 2.5 and 81% of NOX emissions. Coal-based power plants around Delhi, including small and medium-scale industries, release large amounts of SO2 and NOX, and construction activities add 30% of PM 10 and 8% of PM 2.5 emissions. Additionally, solid waste burning and cooking in lower-income areas worsen pollution in winter, when cold temperatures and climate-driven atmospheric stagnation trap pollutants, creating dense smog. Chemical reactions between emissions from vehicles, industries, and other sources also lead to the formation of secondary aerosols. Geographic and climatic conditions further exacerbate Delhi’s air quality issues by keeping pollutants concentrated within the city.
Delhi’s severe air pollution infringes on the right to life under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. Exposure to high levels of PM 2.5 and other pollutants poses serious health risks, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, asthma, and lung cancer. According to the Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago, Delhi residents may lose up to 12 years of life expectancy due to persistently high PM 2.5 levels, far above WHO’s safe limits. The economic toll of poor air quality is substantial, costing India an estimated USD 95 billion annually (3% of the national GDP) through healthcare expenses and reduced productivity.
ADDRESSING POLLUTION IN DELHI
The government has introduced various measures to address Delhi’s air pollution, though many have been reactive or short-term. For instance, the 2015 Odd- Even scheme aimed to reduce vehicular pollution by alternating vehicle usage based on license plate numbers, but it had limited impact due to exemptions for two-wheelers. In 2016, the Central Pollution Control Board implemented the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), which enforces pollution controls on construction activities and coal power plants based on air quality levels, but often relies on inconsistent temporary measures. The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), launched in 2019, targets a 40% PM reduction by 2026 in major cities, though implementation challenges in Delhi limit its effectiveness. Crop Residue Management (CRM) initiatives subsidise non-burning residue solutions, yet financial constraints hinder adoption. Similarly, crop diversification to reduce stubble burning has seen little success.
Policies like the 2018 Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) Scheme and the 2019 Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME-II) support electric vehicles (EVs) and compressed biogas production, but EV adoption remains slow due to high costs and limited infrastructure. Recently, the 2020 Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Ordinance was established for better coordination, research, identification and resolution to improve air quality in Delhi and surrounding areas, but it is still taking shape.


Images Courtesy: Wikimedia Commons
PROACTIVE VERSUS REACTIONARY MEASURES
Government measures to combat Delhi’s air pollution are largely reactionary rather than proactive, often intensifying only after pollution levels reach critical levels, which reduces their impact. Seasonal preparations are inconsistent, and key interventions—such as restrictions on construction, vehicle emissions, and industrial activity—typically begin only once pollution has already surged. Programmes like GRAP and CAQM focus on short-term actions without fully addressing underlying causes like vehicular and industrial emissions and construction dust. GRAP also overlooks secondary pollution sources, such as chemical reactions that produce secondary aerosols contributing to winter smog. These efforts mainly focus on Delhi and its surroundings, with limited regional coordination to address cross-border pollution sources. Likewise, while banning firecrackers may reduce localised pollution during certain events, it is unlikely to make a significant impact on the broader, ongoing air pollution issue, which has regional causes.
Enforcement agencies face challenges in monitoring and implementing fines, with construction and industrial emission standards often neglected. Heavy reliance on emergency measures, and fragmented and uncoordinated approaches result in a patchwork approach rather than a unified, sustained effort. Investments in public transportation and EV infrastructure are progressing slowly, limiting alternatives to private, polluting vehicles. Vehicle emission controls involve both local and central authorities, and poor coordination sometimes leads to conflicting policies—for example, restrictions on diesel versus support for diesel-dependent logistics. Health impacts and public awareness receive little emphasis, leading to low compliance due to limited public buy-in.
Industrial emissions are regulated to some extent with mandates for pollution control equipment and cleaner fuels, but enforcement remains inconsistent. Many smaller and informal industries operate without proper emission controls, with monitoring primarily focused on larger units, allowing smaller ones to evade compliance. Weak enforcement, fragmented jurisdictions, and poor coordination between the Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC) and CAQM, and such hesitancy often results in lenient policies. Similarly, waste burning continues despite regulations, due to poor enforcement, lack of public awareness, and inadequate waste management infrastructure. This issue is especially prevalent in peri-urban areas with limited fines, low awareness, lack of accountability and insufficient resources, complicating the overall management process.
For lasting improvements in Delhi’s air quality, a structural overhaul is essential, shifting from seasonal, reactive quick fixes to a year-round, bold multi-pronged strategy that prioritises prevention, enforcement, and coordination.
The following Ten-Point Agenda should complement existing efforts:
1. Clean Energy Transition: Support India’s 500 GW non-fossil fuel target by encouraging rooftop solar, wind energy, and green hydrogen, reducing reliance on polluting fuels like petroleum, diesel and coal.
2. NOX and SOX Emission Reduction: Mandate Fuel Gas Desulfurization (FGD) and SOX-NOX-ROX-BOx (SNRB) technology systems in all polluting locations to reduce emissions in industrial zones.
3. Expand Blue-Green Spaces: Increase urban greenery and blue spaces to mitigate pollution and cool the city. Implement green building mandates through green building promotional schemes.
4. EV Infrastructure and Emission Controls: Expand EV infrastructure, provide tax incentives, and introduce congestion pricing in high-pollution zones. Tighten checks on older and polluting vehicles and infrastructure.
5. Comprehensive Crop Residue Management: Purchase crop residues from farmers at fair prices and convert them into biomass pellets for local energy production, benefiting both farmers and the energy sector.
6. Pollution Impact Bonds: Introduce bonds to fund pollution control technologies, with returns based on the reduction of pollution levels.
7. Carbon Tax Expansion: Extend carbon taxes to include petrol and diesel, alongside coal, to reduce emissions and promote sustainable energy.
8. Green Credit System: Create a system rewarding individuals and organisations for reducing their carbon and pollution footprints, offering incentives like tax breaks or discounts.
9. AI/ML-Driven Air Quality Management: Expand real-time air quality monitoring and AI/ML/IoT-based forecasting systems for precise pollution management and public health guidance.
10. Public Awareness Campaigns: Launch campaigns highlighting pollution’s health impact, empowering citizens to push for cleaner practices and encouraging policymakers to act more decisively.


Additionally, grant funding for cutting-edge research in these areas to foster innovation. These steps, implemented in a coordinated manner, can significantly improve Delhi’s air quality in the long term.
Several cities worldwide have effectively tackled air pollution through a mix of policy interventions, technology, and public awareness. For example, London introduced the Ultra-Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) in 2019 to charge vehicles that don’t meet strict emission standards, while cities like Stockholm, Paris, and Seoul restrict high-polluting vehicles in certain areas. Tokyo and Los Angeles enforce stringent vehicle emissions standards and incentivize electric and hybrid vehicles, and Beijing has implemented strict industrial emission controls and car-use restrictions. Israel is known for bringing sustainable solutions through technology innovation. While strategies differ, these cities share a commitment to long-term changes in transport, industry, and urban planning.
RESTING ON HOPE
In India, cities like Ahmedabad, Pune, Chandigarh, and Mumbai have adopted notable practices. Ahmedabad has a system to warn residents of hazardous air quality days through Ahmedabad Air Information and Response (AIR) Plan, while Pune’s Smart City Mission focuses on non-motorised transport and waste management. Chandigarh has expanded its green cover and maintained blue infrastructure to improve air quality, and Mumbai has relocated high-emission industries and imposed factory restrictions. While challenges persist, these cities’ incremental progress represents a positive step in India’s battle against air pollution.
Given the severity of the pollution crisis, the city of Delhi must be a top priority for the Indian government. While the problem is challenging, it is not insurmountable. It requires sustained commitment and coordination across all levels of government, from local civic bodies to national leadership. Solutions must be proactive and systemic, focusing on clean energy, blue-green infrastructure, stricter regulations, and public engagement. Addressing air pollution in Delhi is not only essential for public health but also for economic growth, as cleaner air would reduce healthcare costs, boost productivity, and improve quality of life. While current measures have made some progress, scaling up enforcement, building public cooperation, and enhancing cross-regional efforts are critical to achieving a lasting reduction in pollution. Clean air is a fundamental right for all citizens, and with strong leadership and collective effort, Delhi can create a sustainable, healthier future.
*The author is Professor with the School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.