Editor’s Note: Given the immense richness of musical traditions of the subcontinent, Science India presents a three-part series that takes an in-depth look at what gives Indian music its unparalleled strength
The appreciation of art, particularly music and visual arts, relies heavily on the human senses of hearing and sight. These senses afford us the highest aesthetic pleasures derived from experiencing the beauty of sound and imagery. Our comprehension of the world is greatly enriched through these sensory organs, upon which our very existence depends.
Sound and light are foundational elements in our daily lives. While light can traverse through vacuum, sound necessitates a medium for propagation. In a medium, mechanical vibrations from a source generate sound. These vibrations are transmitted to surrounding air molecules, propagating away from the source. The human body serves as a vibrating source, with vocal cords producing sound. Vibrations produced by the vocal cords travel through the mouth and into the atmosphere. The genesis of sound lies in the vibrations of material bodies. For instance, when a Veena is played, various components such as strings, the hemispherical bowl, stem, and gourd vibrate, producing sound. Similarly, instruments like the Jal Tarang exhibit vibrations in water, which are transmitted to porcelain cups. Wind instruments like the flute utilize air vibrations to generate sound.
SOUND, NOISE, MUSIC
Sound is broadly categorized into noise and music. Noise stems from irregular vibrations, resulting in unpleasant and non-repetitive sound, whereas music is characterized by regular, ordered vibrations that produce pleasant and repetitive sound. The differentiation between noise and music is not solely subjective but also based on the objective qualities of the sound waves they generate.
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While discussing musical sound, essential parameters include pitch, rhythm, loudness, and timbre.
PITCH: It enables the organization of sounds on a scale related to frequency. In practical terms, pitch distinguishes between higher and lower sounds, especially in musical melodies. Pitch is quantified by sound frequency, typically expressed in Hertz (Hz). Higher frequency sound waves correspond to higher pitch. Expressing pitch as a musical note’s position on a scale offers another perspective. Lower scale notes represent lower pitch sounds, while higher scale notes denote higher pitch sounds.
RHYTHM: Various drums, when struck, produce rhythmic sequences due to vibrations in their circular membrane drum heads. Despite initial membrane shape or velocity, distinct sets of frequencies are generated, creating rhythmic patterns that captivate listeners. These rhythmic patterns, repeated consistently over time, define rhythm in music and percussion. The concept of rhythm extends beyond music to daily life, such as the rhythmic patterns of heartbeats.
LOUDNESS: Loudness of musical sound is primarily determined by vibratory movement extent, directly related to waveform amplitude. For instance, a larger amplitude of string vibratory movement on a Veena produces louder sound. Loudness is intertwined with other sound parameters like timbre and pitch.
TIMBRE: Timbre, represented by a sound’s unique frequency set, distinguishes between sounds sharing pitch, duration, and loudness. For example, playing the same note on the Tabla and Mridangam drums produces distinct sounds due to different overtone frequencies. Timbre is closely tied to waveform shape and characteristics.
These properties collectively contribute to our understanding and appreciation of musical sound, enriching our sensory experiences in the arts.
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THE EVOLUTION
India boasts a rich musical tradition deeply rooted in its civilization, evident through ancient sculptures, paintings, and scriptures. The Sama Veda, dedicated to the art of music, highlights the profound depth and melodious qualities of Indian classical music. Musical instruments are intrinsically linked with deities in Indian culture, with iconic representations such as Krishna with his flute, Devi Saraswati with a Veena, Shiva with a Damru, or Narada with his Tambura.
The evolution of Indian musical instruments dates back to the Vedas, epics, and Samrithis. For instance, the Veena, mentioned in Sage Yagnavalka’s Samrithi, holds significance in spiritual pursuits. Temples play a crucial role in deity worship accompanied by music. Ramanujacharya, mentioned in the Nitya Grantha, advocated using instruments like the Veena and flute during deity decoration in temples. This tradition continues in temples like Shri Nathji and Shri Dwarkadheesh Temple in Mathura, where devotional compositions are sung with instruments like Shankh, Ganta, Dhol, Manjeera, and Mridanga.
Ancient Indian musical instruments find mention in Sanskrit treatises, sacred texts, literature, sculptures, paintings, and folklore. Vedic texts like the Atharva Veda, Bhagavata Purana, and Natyashastra provide insights into the diversity of musical instruments. Over centuries, instruments like the Veena have evolved into various forms such as the Rudra Veena, Saraswati Veena, and Jantar. This evolution, seen in string and percussion instruments, reflects a continuous process of adaptation to changing needs in playing technique, design, and usage.
The Natyashastra categorizes musical instruments into four types: Tat or Tantu Vadya (stringed instruments), Sushir Vadya (wind instruments), Avanaddha Vadya (percussion or drums), and Ghana Vadya (bells, cymbals, and gongs). This classification underscores the diversity and complexity of India’s musical tradition.
TAT OR TANTU VADYA (STRINGED INSTRUMENTS)
‘Tat Vadya’ denotes string instruments (chordophones) where sound is generated by plucking the strings. These instruments can be classified into four types, each distinguished by its unique playing technique and method of sound production.
Plucked Instruments: Sound is produced by plucking the strings with fingers, thumb, or a plectrum, e.g., Tanpura, Sitar, Swarmandal, Mohan Veena, Rudra Veena, Saraswati Veena, and Jantar.
Stroking Instruments: Sound is produced by stroking the strings using nails or a plectrum, e.g., Sarod and Rebab.
Bowed Instruments: Sound is produced by drawing a bow across the strings, e.g., Sarangi, Israj, and violin.
Hammered Instruments: Sound is produced by striking the strings with wooden mallets (Mezrab), causing them to vibrate against the soundboard, e.g., Santoor.
In ancient times, strings for these instruments were crafted from materials such as hair, weeds, and animal skin. The origins of string instruments are often linked to the sound of a bow releasing an arrow during early human hunting activities. Mythologically, the creation of string instruments is attributed to Shiva’s bow.
Modern string instruments exhibit variations in shapes, sizes, and the number of strings, yet they all share a common feature: a sound bridge to which the strings are attached. The frequency of the sound produced by these instruments depends on the string’s length and its distance from the sound bridge.
The evolution of stringed instruments reveals that early versions lacked frets and sympathetic strings. Frets and sympathetic strings were introduced later, enhancing the development and versatility of these instruments.
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Saraswati Veena: The Saraswati Veena, an esteemed and ancient Indian instrument, holds a revered position in South Indian classical music, particularly in Carnatic music. Often hailed as the ‘queen of instruments’, its origin can be traced back to around 1700 BC. Scholars classify four types of Veena instruments, including the Tanjavur (Saraswati) Veena, Rudra Veena, Vichitra Veena, and Gottuvadhyam (Chitra) Veena.
Sitar: The Sitar, a plucked stringed instrument, holds a significant place in Hindustani music, particularly in North Indian classical music. Believed to have been introduced to India in the 13th century by Amir Khusrau, a prominent musicologist, its name derives from the Persian word ‘setar’, meaning three-stringed. Celebrated for its enchanting and evocative sound, the Sitar stands as one of the most captivating instruments in Indian classical music. Its unique timbre and intricate playing techniques contribute to its allure, earning it a prideful place among Indian musical instruments. The Sitar’s ability to evoke emotions and create a distinctive musical ambiance has cemented its status as an iconic instrument, both within India and on the global stage.
Sarod: The Sarod, an exceptional Indian musical instrument, embodies a fusion of the ancient Indian Veena and the medieval Rebab, tracing its origins to the Rebab of the Middle East. Its integration into Indian classical music can be credited to the legendary musician Tansen, renowned as one of the greatest figures in the history of Indian classical music.
Violin: The Violin, a four-stringed instrument played with a bow, has become an integral part of Carnatic music. Its introduction to Carnatic music occurred towards the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. Besides serving as an accompaniment, the Violin gained popularity as a solo instrument within the Carnatic tradition. The ancestry of the Violin is believed to be linked to the Ravanahatha, a folk instrument originating from Rajasthan. The Ravanahatha is said to have originated during the time of Ravana, the powerful king of Lanka, who played it as a musical offering to Lord Shiva.
Tanpura: The tanpura is a quintessential instrument in Indian classical music, providing a rich and resonant drone that serves as a foundation for melody and rhythm. Its origins can be traced back to ancient India, where it likely evolved from earlier stringed instruments. Initially, the tanpura served as an accompaniment to vocal and instrumental performances, providing a continuous drone to support the melody. Over time, it became an integral part of Indian classical music ensembles, both in Hindustani (North Indian) and Carnatic (South Indian) traditions.
Guitar: The guitar, commonly associated with Western music, has a lesser-known historical connection to ancient India, particularly during the Vedic period when the musical form was known as Samgan. In that era, the Kachhapi Veena was utilized for solo performances and as an accompanying instrument. Over time, this instrument is believed to have migrated to various parts of the world, adopting different names, while its presence in India waned. The classical gut-string guitar made its appearance in musical circles in Madras around the 1840s, marking a revival of the guitar tradition in India. The steel-string guitar has gained popularity in the North-East region of India and Goa, becoming a mainstream instrument in popular settings. Additionally, the guitar has occasionally been incorporated into Indian classical music, ghazals, and other forms of light music in India.
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THE SCIENCE OF TAT/STRINGED INSTRUMENTS
Stringed instruments rely on soundboards to amplify their sound. It is evident that strings supported rigidly produce minimal sound. When strings are affixed to a soundboard, they transmit vibrations. The large surface area of the board allows it to convey these vibrations to the air. Our focus should extend beyond the string’s vibrations to include the impact on the soundboard, which has a dual role of reinforcing and enhancing these vibrations. Designing soundboards for various stringed instruments is intricate, with the precise dimensions of components like the string bridge and soundboard settled empirically to achieve the desired tone quality.
The Tanpura and Veena are highly esteemed indigenous plucked instruments. In the Veena, sound output enhancement is delegated to the large pear-shaped bowl and associated elements. Typically crafted from jackwood or rosewood, the bowl is hollowed out in one piece. In southern instruments, a hollow gourd resonator substitutes the wooden bowl. The bridge, centrally positioned on the bowl, is meticulously curved on its upper metal surface. Additionally, a side bridge in the form of a brass arc and small holes near the bridge facilitate better transmission by establishing communication between the external and internal air.
These instruments typically feature seven strings, with four passing over frets for playing and three stretched at the side of the fingerboard for marking time. The method of exciting these strings involves plucking, drawing the tense string out of its equilibrium, and releasing it suddenly. Stringed instruments, largely derived from ancient veena, exhibit unique acoustic richness due to boundary obstacle-induced vibrations. Researchers have modeled string vibrations, highlighting characteristics such as accurate harmonicity in numerous overtones, amplitude modulations, frequency modulations, and long-sustained sound. The finite bridge introduces nonlinearity, synchronizing string vibrations and creating the accurately harmonic sound observed in instruments like the sitar and veenas.
In the Veena, the bridge is notably higher above the body than in Tanpura. Even when strings are pressed on the frets during play, the curved upper surface ensures the strings leave the bridge at a tangent. Forces exerted by vibrating strings on the bridge in Tanpura differ significantly from those on an ordinary bridge. Most energy transfer to the bridge likely occurs at, or near the point of grazing contact, with forces resembling impulses during each string vibration cycle. This process explains the robust collection of overtones, including those initially absent. As the bridge reacts to the string, modifications to its vibration form occur, giving rise to initially absent partials. The explanation for Tanpura might not entirely apply to the Veena, as forces exerted by the string on the bridge are not purely impulsive. Still, a certain bridge portion experiences intermittent contact during vibration, suggesting a theory intermediate between that for Tanpura and those for stringed instruments with ordinary bridges.
*The writer is Associate Professor, Department of Physics, University of Lucknow.
